FRANCIS BACON 'S

 

HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH,

of

 

THE SECOND TITLE

ALTHOUGH in my six monthly designations I placed the History of Life and Death last in order; yet the extreme profit and importance of the subject, wherein even the slightest loss of time should be accounted precious, has decided me to make an anticipation, and advance it into the second place. For it is my hope and desire that it will contribute to the common good; that through it the higher physicians will somewhat raise their thoughts, and not devote all their time to common cures, nor be honoured for necessity only; but that they will become the instruments and dispensers of God's power and mercy in prolonging and renewing the life of man, the rather because it is effected by safe, convenient, and civil, though hitherto unattempted methods. For although we Christians ever aspire and pant after the land of promise, yet meanwhile it will be a mark of God's favour if in our pilgrimage through the wilderness of this world, these our shoes and garments (I mean our frail bodies) are as little worn out as possible.

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INTRODUCTION.

THAT "Life is short and Art long " is an old proverb and complaint. It appears therefore to follow naturally that who I am earnestly labouring for the perfection of arts should take thought also, by the grace and favour of the Author of Life and Truth, about the means of prolonging the life of man. For though the life of man is only a mass and accumulation of sins and sorrows, and they who aspire to eternity set little value on life; yet even we Christians should not despise the continuance of works of charity. Besides, the beloved disciple survived the rest, and many of the Fathers, especially holy monks and hermits, were long-lived; so that this blessing (so often repeated in the old law) appears to have been less withdrawn after the time of our Saviour than other earthly blessings. But to regard this as the greatest blessing is natural; how to secure it is a difficult inquiry ; and the more difficult because it has been corrupted by false opinions and vain reports. For both the common phrases of physicians concerning Radical Moisture and Natural Heat are deceptive, and the extravagant praises of chemical medicines only raise men's hopes to disappoint them.

The present inquiry is not instituted for deaths from suf-focation, putrefaction, and divers diseases, which belong to the history of medicine; but only for that death which proceeds from bodily decay and the atrophy of old age. To inquire however concerning the last step of death and the final ex-tinction of life, which may happen so many ways both external and internal (yet all which meet as it were in a common porch before they come to the point of death), is in my judg-ment pertinent to this inquiry; but I will reserve it till the end.

218

Whatever can be repaired gradually without destroying the original whole is, like the vestal fire, potentially eternal. When therefore physicians and philosophers observed that animals were nourished and their bodies repaired and refreshed, but that this was only for a time, as old age soon came on and was speedily followed by dissolution; they looked for death in something that could not be properly repaired, imagining that there was some primitive and radical moisture which was not really repaired,but which even from childhood received a kind of spurious addition and no true repair; and that with time this grew worse and worse, till at last it ended in none at all. But these opinions are very frivolous and ignorant. For in the time of growth and youth all the parts of animals are repaired entirely; nay, for a time they are increased in quantity and bettered in quality, so that the matter whereby they are repaired would be eternal, if the manner of repairing them did not fail. The real truth is this. In declining age repair takes place very unequally, some parts being repaired successfully enough, others with difficulty and for the worse; so that from this time- the human body begins to suffer that torture of Mezentius, whereby the living die in the embraces of the dead, and the parts that are easily repaired, by reason of their -connection with tie parts hardly reparable, begin to decay. For even after the decline of age the spirit, blood, flesh, and fat are still easily repaired, when the drier or more porous parts, as the membranes, tunicles, nerves, arteries, veins, bones, cartilages, most of the bowels, and nearly all the organic parts are repaired with difficulty and loss. Now these parts when they ought to perform their office of repairing the other reparable parts, being impaired in their powers and activity, are no longer equal to their proper functions; and hence it results that very soon the whole tends to dissolution, and those very parts, which in their own nature axe most capable of Tepair, are yet through the failure of the organs of repair no longer able to be similarly repaired, but decay, and in the end totally fail. The cause of the termination is this; the spirit which like a gentle flame is ever preying on the body, and the external air which likewise sucks and dries bodies, conspiring with the spirit, do in the end destroy the workshop of the body with its machines and organs, and make them incapable of performing the work of repair. Such then are the true ways of natural death, which deserve to be well and carefully considered. For how can a man, who knows not the ways of nature, meet and turn her?

219

There are therefore two subjects of inquiry; the one, the consumption or depredation of the human body; the other, the repair or refreshment thereof; with a view to the restraining of the one (as far as may be), and the strengthening and comforting the other. The first of these pertains principally to the spirits and external air, which cause the depredation; the second to the whole process of alimentation, which supplies the renovation. With regard to the first part of the inquiry, touching consumption, it has many things in common with bodies inanimate. For whatever the native spirit (which exists in all tangible bodies whether with or without life) and the ambient or external air do to bodies inanimate, the same they try to do to bodies animate, though the presence of the vital spirit in part disturbs and restrains these operations, and in part intensifies and increases them exceedingly. For it is very evident that many inanimate bodies can last a very long time without repair, but animate bodies without aliment and repair at once collapse and die out like fire. The inquiry therefore should be twofold; regarding first the body of man as a thing inanimate and unrepaired by nourishment; and secondly as a thing animate and nourished. And with these prefatory remarks I now pass on to the Topics of Inquiry.

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1. Inquire into the Nature of Durable and Non-Durable inanimate bodies, and likewise in Vegetables; not in a full and regular inquiry, but briefly, summarily, and as it were only by the way.

2. Inquire more carefully touching the desiccation, arefaction. and consumption of bodies inanimate and vegetable; of the ways and processes whereby they are effected, and withal the methods whereby they are prevented and retarded, and, bodies are preserved in their own state.. Also inquire touching the inteneration, softening,- and renewal of bodies, after they have once commenced to become dry.

Neither however need this inquiry be perfect or exact; as these things should be drawn from the proper title of Nature Durable; and as they are not the principal questions in the present inquiry, but only shed a light on the prolongation and restoration of life in animals; wherein, as has been observed before, the same things generally happen, though in their own manner. From the inquiry concerning inanimate and vegetable bodies pass on to the inquiry of animals, not including man.

3. Inquire into the length and shortness of life in animals, with the proper circumstances which seem to contribute to either of them.

4. Since the duration of bodies is of two kinds, the one in their simple identity, the other by repair; whereof the former takes place only in bodies inanimate, the latter in vegetables and living creatures, and is performed by alimentation; inquire likewise touching alimentation, with its ways and process; yet this not accurately (for it belongs to the titles of Assimilation and Alimentation) but as before, in passing only. From the inquiry concerning animals and things supported by nourishment pass on to that concerning man. And having now come to the principal subject of inquiry, that inquiry should be more accurate and complete on all points.

5. Inquire into the length and shortness of men's lives, according to the times, countries, climates, and places in which they were born and lived.

6. Inquire into the length and shortness of men's lives, according to their parentage and family (as if it were a thing hereditary); and likewise according to their complexion, constitution, habit of body, stature, manners and time of growth, and the make and structure of their limbs.

7. Inquire into the length and shortness of men's lives according to the times of their nativity; but so as to omit for the present all astrological and horoscopical observations. Admit only the common and manifest observations (if there be any); as, whether the birth took place in the 7th, 8th, 9th, or 10th month, whether by night or by day, and in what month of the year.

8. Inquire into the length and shortness of men's lives according to their food, diet, manner of living, exercise, and the like. With regard to the air in which they live and dwell, I consider that ought to be inquired under the former article concerning their places of abode.

9. Inquire into the length and shortness of men's lives according to their studies, kinds of life, affections of the mind, and various accidents.

10.Inquire separately into the medicines which are supposed to prolong life.

11.Inquire into the signs and prognostics of a long and short life; not into those which betoken that death is close at hand (for they belong to the history of medicine); but into those which appear and are observed even in health, whether taken from physiognomy or otherwise.

So far the inquiry touching the length and shortness of life is instituted in an unscientific and confused manner; but I have thought it right to add a systematic inquiry, bearing on practice by means of Intentions; which are of three kinds. Their more particular distributions I will set forth when I come to the inquiry itself. The three general intentions are; the prevention of consumption; the perfection of repair, and the renovation of that which is old.

12.Inquire into the things which preserve and exempt the body of man from arefaction and consumption, or at least which check and retard the tendency thereto.

13.Inquire into the things which belong to the general process of alimentation (whereby the body of man is repaired), that it may be good and with as little loss as possible.

14.Inquire into the things which clear away the old matter and supply new; and likewise those which soften and moisten the parts that have become hard and dry.

But since it will be difficult to know the ways to death, unless the seat and house (or rather cave) of death be first examined and discovered; of this too should inquiry be made; not however of every kind of death, but of such only as are caused, not by violence, but by privation and want. For these alone relate to the decay of the body from age.

16.Inquire into the point of death and the porches which on all sides lead to it; provided it be caused by want and not by violence.

Lastly, since it is convenient to know the character and form of old age; which will be done best by making a careful collection of all the differences in the state and functions of the body between youth and old age, that by them you may see what it is that branches out into so many effects; do not omit this inquiry.

17.Inquire carefully into the differences of the state and faculties of the body in youth and old age; and see whether there be anything that remains unimpaired in old age.

1. Metals last so long that men cannot observe yla of irt-qutr the period of their duration. And even when they do dissolve from age, they dissolve into rust, not through perspiration. Gold however is affected neither way.

2. Quicksilver, though a moist and fluid body and easily made volatile by fire, yet (as far as we know) neither decays nor collects rust by age alone without fire.

3. Stones, especially the harder kinds, and many other fossils are exceedingly durable, even when exposed to the air; and much more so when buried in the earth. But yet they collect a kind of nitre which acts as rust upon them. Precious stones and crystals last even longer than metals, but after a length of tune they lose somewhat of their brilliancy.

4. It is observed that stones facing the north decay sooner than those which face the south, as may be seen in obelisks, churches, and other buildings. But iron on the contrary rusts sooner on the south than on the north side, as is shewn on the iron bars or grating of windows. And there is nothing strange in this, seeing that in all putrefactions (and rust is one) moisture accelerates dissolution, as dryness does in simple arefaction.

5. Vegetables when cut down and no longer growing, as the stems or trunks of the harder trees and the timber manufactured from them, last for some ages. But there is a great difference in the parts of the trunk. Some, like the elder, are fistulous, with a soft pith in the middle, and a harder exterior; but in solid trees like the oak, the interior part (which is called the heart of the tree) is snore durable.

6. The leaves, flowers, and even the stalks of plants are of short duration, and unless they putrefy, turn into dust and ashes; but the roots are more durable.

7. The bones of animals last long, as may be seen in charnelhouses where they are stored. Horns also and teeth are very durable, as is seen in ivory, and the teeth of the sea-horse.

8. Skins and hides are very durable, as appears from old parchment books. Paper likewise lasts for many, ages, though less durable than parchment.

9. Things which have passed through the fire, like glass or bricks, become very durable. Flesh and fruit also last longer in a cooked than in a raw state. And this is not only because the preparation in the fire prevents putrefaction; but also because, when the watery humour is discharged, the oily humour can support itself longer.

10. Of all liquids, water evaporates the quickest, oil the slowest; as may be seen, not only in the liquids themselves, but also in their compounds. For if paper be moistened with water so as to acquire some transparency, yet it will soon lose it again and turn white, by reason of the evaporation of the water. On the other hand if the paper be dipped in oil, the transparency lasts for a long time, because of the slow evapo-ration of the oil. And this is the reason why forgers lay oiled paper on an autograph, by means of which they attempt to draw the lines.

11. All gums last a very long time; as do wax and honey.

12. But the equality or inequality of the accidental condi-tions of bodies contributes as much as the things themselves to their duration and dissolution. Thus timber, atones, and other bodies last longer, if always in the air or always in the water, than if they be sometimes wet and sometimes dry. Stones dug out of the earth and placed in buildings last longer, if they lie in the same direction and point to the same quarter of the heaven as they did in the quarry. This happens likewise in the removal and transplantation of plants.

Major Observations.

1. Let it be assumed, as is most certain, that all tangible bodies contain a spirit of pneumatic body concealed and en-veloped in the tangible parts; that by this spirit all dissolution and consumption is commenced; it follows that the antidote against them is the detention of this spirit.

2. This spirit is detained in two ways; either by a close confinement, as in a prison, or by a kind of voluntary detention. This continuance is likewise invited in two ways; namely, if the spirit itself be not very impetuous or pungent, and if more-over it be not much excited by the external air to come forth. Therefore there are two durable substances; namely, the Hard and the Oily; whereof the former binds down the spirit, the latter partly soothes it, and partly is of that nature that it is less acted upon by the air; for air is of the same substance as water, and flame as oil. So much therefore touching nature durable and non-durable in inanimate subjects.

13. Herbs which are said to be of a colder sort, as lettuce, purslane, wheat, and all kinds of corn, are annual, and perish yearly, both in root and stalk. Yet there are likewise some cold plants that will last three or four years, as the violet, strawberry, burnet, primrose, and sorrel; but borage and bugloss, although they seem so like alive, differ in death; for the borage is an annual, the bugloss longer lived.

14. But most hot plants bear age and years better; as hyssop, thyme, savory, pot-marjoram, balm, wormwood, germander, sage, and the like. Fennel dies in the stalk, but springs again from the.root. Basil and sweet marjoram stand age better than cold; for if they are planted in a warm and well sheltered spot they will live more than one year. A knot or figure of hyssop (such as they have in gardens for ornament), clipped twice a year, has been known to last for forty years.

15. Shrubs and bushes live for sixty years; some even twice as long. A vine may continue to bear at sixty. Rosemary also in a favourable situation will live for sixty years; evergreen thorn, and ivy for snore than a hundred. The age of the bramble is not observable, since by bowing its head to the ground it strikes new roots, so that it is difficult to distinguish the old from the new.

16. Of the larger trees the longest lived are the oak, the holm-oak, the mountain ash, the elm, the beech, the chesnut, the plane, the fig, the lotus, the wild olive, the olive, the palm, and the mulberry. Of these, some come to the age of eight hundred years, and the most short-lived reach two hundred.

17. Fragrant and resinous trees are in their wood or timber even more durable than those just mentioned; but they are not so long-lived. Such are the cypress, fir, pine, box, and juniper; but the cedar, being assisted by its enormous bulk, almost equals the former in age.

18. The ash, lively and rapid in its growth, lasts for a hundred years or a little more; as sometimes also do the birch, maple, and service tree ; but the poplar, lime, willow, and that which they call the sycamore, and walnut, are not so long-lived.

19. The apple, pear, plum, pomegranate, citron, lemon, medlar, cornel, and cherry, sometimes reach their fiftieth or

16 Bacon Vsixtieth year; especially if from time to time they are cleared of the moss that covers some of them.

20. In general, the size of a tree and the hardness of its timber have (if there be nothing adverse in other respects) some connection with their length of life. Trees likewise that bear mast or nuts are generally more long-lived than those that bear fruit or berries. Trees which come into leaf and shed their leaves late last longer than those that are early either in fruit or leaf. Wild trees live longer than orchard trees; and in the same kind trees that have an acid fruit are longer-lived than those with a sweet one.

A Major Observation.

Aristotle has noted well the distinction between plants and animals, as regards alimentation and renovation, namely, that the bodies of animals are confined within their own bounds; and that after they have come to their full growth, they are continued and preserved by nourishment, but put forth nothing new except hair and nails, which are regarded as excretions; so that of necessity the juices of animals must soon grow old; whereas in trees, which from time to time put out new branches, new shoots, new leaves, and new fruits, it happens that these parts are always fresh, and untouched by age.1 But since everything fresh and young draws in nourishment with more strength and vigour than that which has commenced to fade, it happens withal that the trunk, through which the sap passes to the boughs, is itself moistened and refreshed in the passage by a richer and more abundant aliment. And this is further shown (though it was not observed by Aristotle, who likewise has not so clearly expressed that which I have just mentioned,) by this; that in hedges, copses, and pollards, the cutting off of the branches or suckers strengthens the stem or trunk and makes it longer-lived.

The History.

With reference(('Aristot. De Long. et Brevit. Vitro, c. 227 )1. Fire and intense heat dry some things but to the 2nd yqr~t~ a of in. melt others. °1 In one and the same fire, clay grows hard and wax melts."' Heat dries the earth, stones, wood, cloth, skins, and all bodies that cannot be melted. It melts metals, wax, gums, butter, tallow, and the like.

2. But if the fire be very strong it will in the end dry up even the things which it has melted. For metals, with the exception of gold, having lost their volatile part in a strong fire, become lighter and more brittle; and oily and fat substances become burnt, scorched, dried up, and crusted.

3. Air, especially open sir, manifestly dries, but never melts. Thus roads and the soil when moistened by rain are dried; washed linen exposed to the air is dried; herbs, leaves, and flowers are dried in the shade. But the air acts much quicker either when brightened by the sun's rays (if only it does not produce putrefaction), or when stirred by a gale of wind, and in thorough draughts.

4. Age dries most, but slowest of all things; as is -the case in all bodies, which (if putrefaction does not intervene) become dry with age. Not however that age is anything of itself (seeing it is only a measure of time), but the effect is produced by the innate spirit of the body, which sucks out the moisture of the body, and flies out with it; and by the external air, which multiplies itself upon the innate spirits and juices of the body, and preys upon them.

5. Cold has of all things the greatest property of drying; for dryness cannot take place without contraction, and this is the peculiar work of cold. But since men have a very powerful heat in fire, but a very feeble degree of cold (for there is nothing besides that of winter, or perhaps ice and snow, or nitre); the desiccations of cold are weak and easily dissolved. Yet still we see that the surface of the earth is more dried by frost and March winds than by the sun; for the same wind that sucks up the moisture strikes the ground with cold.

6. Smoke from the fire has a drying power, as is shown in bacon and oz-tongues hung up in chimnies. And so fumigations of olibanum, lign aloes, and the like, dry the brain and cure catarrhs.

7. Salt, by a somewhat longer process, dries not only the outside but the inside also; as in salt flesh or fish, which by a long salting are manifestly hardened within.

I Virg% Eclog. vial. 80. Limus ut hic durescit, et haec ut cera llquescit Uno eodemque igne."

8. Hot gums applied to the skin dry and wrinkle it; as likewise do some astringent waters.

9. Strong spirit of wine dries as well as fire; so as to blanch the white of an egg put into it, and to toast bread.

10. Powders dry, like sponges, by sucking up the moisture; as is seen in the - powder thrown on ink after writing. The polished surface likewise and closeness of the body (which does not permit the vapour of moisture to enter through the pores) accidentally dries it by exposure to the air; as is seen in precious stones, looking-glasses, and sword-blades, which, if you breathe upon them, appear at first covered with a vapour, though it Boon disperses like a little cloud. And so much for desiccation.

11. In the eastern parts of Germany, at the present day, they make use of cellars as granaries to keep wheat and other grain. A covering of straw of some depth is laid on the floor below and round the grain, to keep off and absorb the moisture of the cellar; by which means the grain is preserved for twenty or thirty years, not only from rotting, but (what pertains more to the present inquiry) in such a state of freshness as to make excellent bread. The same custom is said to have prevailed in Cappadocia, Tbrace, and some parts of Spain.'

12. The situation of granaries at the tops of houses, with windows to the east and north, is very convenient. Sometimes two floors are constructed, an upper and a lower one; whereof the upper one is perforated with holes, that the grain (like sand in an Hour-glass) may continually fall through the chinks, and after a few days be shovelled up again, so as to keep the grain in constant motion. Now we must observe that a contrivance of this- kind not only prevents the corn from rotting, but preserves freshness and checks desiccation; because, as was before remarked, the discharge of the watery humour, which is accelerated by the motion-and the wind, preserves the oily part that would otherwise escape with the watery moisture in its proper substance. On some mountains likewise where the air is pure dead bodies will remain many days without much decay.

13. Fruits, as pomegranates, lemons, apples, pears, and the like; and flowers, as roses and lilies, are kept a long time in close earthen vessels. Not however that then they are entirely free from the affection of the external air, which conveys and insinuates its inequalities through the sides of the vessel, as is shown in heat and cold; so that besides carefully stopping the mouths of the vessels, it will be good likewise to bury them in the earth. Or it will answer the same purpose if you sink them in water, provided the water be sheltered, as wells and cisterns in houses; but in this case glass vessels should be substituted for earthen.

Pliny, xviii. 73.

14. In general, things kept in the earth, or in cellars, or in water, preserve their freshness longer than things kept above ground.

15. It is said that in conservatories of snow (whether in the mountains, in natural pits, or in artificial wells), if an apple, chesnut, nut, or anything of the kind happen to fall in, it will be found many months after, when the snow has melted, or even in the snow itself, as fresh and fair as if it had been gathered the day before.

16. Country people keep grapes by covering the bunches with meal, which, though it makes them less pleasant to the taste, yet preserves their juice and freshness. Likewise all the harder fruits last for a long time, not only in meal, but also in sawdust, and even in heaps of grain.

17. It is a common opinion that bodies are preserved fresh in liquors of their own kind, as in their proper menstrua ; as grapes in wine, olives in oil, and the like.

18. Pomegranates and quinces are preserved by dipping them in sea or salt water, and presently taking them out again, and drying them in the open air in a shady place.

19. Bodies suspended in wine, oil, or lees of oil keep long; much longer in honey and spirit of wine, but the longest of all (according to some) in quicksilver.

20. Fruits covered with wax, pitch, plaster, paste, or other coat or covering, long retain their freshness.

21. It is manifest that flies, spiders, ants, and the like, that have accidentally been inclosed and buried in amber or even the gums of trees, never afterwards decay; though they are soft and tender bodies.

22. Grapes and other fruits are preserved by hanging them up in the air. For in this there is a double advantage; one, that all the bruising or pressure, which happens when they are laid on hard bodies, is avoided; the other, that there is an equal play of the air on all sides of them.

23. It has been remarked that in vegetable bodies neither putrefaction nor desiccation commence alike in every part; but chiefly in that part through which during life aliment was drawn. Hence some recommend to cover up applestalks and fruitstalks with melted wax or pitch.

24. Large wicks of candles or lamps consume the tallow or oil quicker than small ones; cotton-wicks quicker than those of rush, straw, or twig; torches of juniper or fir burn quicker than those of ash; and all flame stirred and fanned by the wind burns faster than in a calm; and therefore slower in a lantern than in the open air. Lamps in tombs are said to last for a very long time.

25. The nature likewise and preparation of the aliment, no less than the nature of the flame, contributes to the length of time they burn. For wax lasts longer than tallow, moist tallow longer than dry, hard wax longer than soft.

26. Trees, if the earth about their roots be stirred, every year, last for a shorter time; if every five or ten years, for a longer. Cutting off buds and shoots contributes to their length of life; but manuring, laying chalk and the like about their roots, or much irrigation, though it increases their fruitfulness, shortens their existence. And so much for the prevention of desiccation and consumption.

The inteneration of bodies which have been dried, though the most important part of the matter, presents but few experiments; and I will therefore combine with them some things which happen to animals and even to man.

27. Willow bands used to bind trees become more flexilbe by being steeped in water. The ends of birch twigs likewise are placed in pots of water to prevent them from withering. Bowls that have cracked from dryness, by being placed in water, close and become whole again.

28. Leathern boots grown hard and stiff with age are softened by being greased with tallow before the fire; and if they are put before a fire alone they get some softness. Bladders and parchment which have become hard, are softened by warm water with an infusion of oil or any fat substance; and more so if besides this they are slightly rubbed.

29. Very old trees, which have long stood untouched, if the earth about their roots be stirred and opened out, manifestly become as it were young again, and put out new and tender leaves.

30. Old draught oxen, entirely worn out, if turned into a fresh pasture, put on new flesh, tender and young, so as even to taste like young beef.

31. A spare and strict diet of guaiacum, biscuit, and the like (such as is used in the cure of venereal diseases, inveterate catarrhs, and the beginning of dropsy,) reduces men to great leanness, by consuming the juices of the body. But these when they begin to be renewed and recruited, appear much more fresh and youthful, so that I judge wasting diseases well cured to have prolonged the lives of many.

Major Observations.

1. It is strange how men, like owls, see sharply in the darkness of their own notions, but in the daylight of experience wink and are blinded. They talk of the elementary quality of dryness, of desiccants, and of the natural periods of bodies, by which they are corrupted and consumed; but in the meantime they observe nothing of any moment, either of the beginnings, or of the intermediate and last acts of desiccation and consumption.

2. The process of desiccation and consumption is performed by three actions, which are derived, as was mentioned. before, from the innate spirit of bodies.

3. The first action is the Attenuation of Moisture into Spirit; the second is, the Egress or Escape of the Spirit; the third is, the Contraction of the Grosser Parts of the Body, immediately after the emission of the spirit. And this last is that desiccation and induration whereof I am now principally treating; the two first only consume.

4. With regard to Attenuation, the matter is obvious. The spirit inclosed in all tangible bodies does not forget itself, but whatever it finds therein, that it can digest, work upon, and turn into itself, that it plainly alters and subdues, multiplying itself thereby and generating new spirit. This is confirmed by one proof, which may do for all; that bodies thoroughly dried lose in weight, and become hollow, porous, and sonorous from within. Now it is most certain that the spirit which pre-exists in the body adds nothing to the weight, but rather takes away from it; and therefore it must needs be that this spirit has turned into itself that moisture and juice of the body, which befcre weighed; by which means the weight is diminished: This then is the first action; namely, the Attenuation of Moisture and its Conversion into Spirit.

5. The second action, namely the Egress or Escape of the Spirit, is likewise very manifest This escape, if it takes place all at once, is even apparent to the sense; in vapours to the sight, in odours to the smell; but if it is gradual, as in old age, it is imperceptible to the sense, though it is the same process. Besides, if the texture of the body is so close and tenacious as to prevent the spirit from finding any pores or passages of escape, the spirit in its efforts to get out drives before it the grosser parts of the body and thrusts .them beyond the surface; as may be seen in the rusting of metals and the corruption of all fat bodies. This then is the second action; namely, the Egress or Escape of the Spirit

6. The third action is a little more obscure but equally certain; namely the Contraction of the Grosser Parts after the Emission of the Spirit. In the first place, after the emission of the spirit, bodies seem to be manifestly contracted and to fill less space; as the kernels of nuts when dried do not fill the shell; beams and planks of wood, which at first lay close together, when dried start asunder; bowls and the like crack from dryness; for the parts of the body contract themselves together, and being contracted necessarily leave vacant spaces between them. Secondly, this is shown by the wrinkles of dried bodies ; the effort of contraction having so much power as in the meantime to draw the parts together and raise them up ; for things that are contracted at the extremities are raised in the centre. And this may be seen in paper, old parchments, the skin of animals, and the rind of soft cheese, all which with age become wrinkled. Thirdly, this contraction shows itself better in things which are not only wrinkled by heat, but are also folded, crumpled, and as it were rolled up by it; as may be seen by holding paper, parchment, and leaves to the fire. For contraction by age, being a slower process, generally only wrinkles, but contraction by fire being more speedy likewise curls up in folds. But in most bodies, which do not admit of wrinkling or folding, there is a simple contraction, shrinking, induration, and desiccation, as was laid down at first. And if the escape of the spirit and consumption of the moisture is so great as not to leave body enough to unite and contract itself, then the contraction necessarily ceases, the body becomes putrid, and nothing but a little dust hanging together, which with a slight touch is dissipated and passes into air; as may be seen in bodies much decayed, in paper and linen burnt to tinder, and in corpses which have been long embalmed. This then is the third action; namely, the Contraction of the Grosser Parts of the Body after the Emission of the Spirit.

7. It should be observed that fire and heat only dry accidentally, their proper work being to attenuate and dilate the spirit and moisture. But it follows by accident that the other parts contract themselves; whether only to avoid a vacuum, or from some simultaneous motion, whereof I aim not now speaking.

8. It is certain that putrefaction as well as arefaction is caused by the innate spirit, though it proceeds in a very different way. For in putrefaction the spirit is not simply discharged, but is in part detained, whence it produces strange effects. And the grosser parts likewise are not so much locally contracted as collected severally each to its own kind.

With regard to the length and shortness of life in

to the 3rd

Article of inquiry. animals, the information to be had is small, observation careless, and tradition fabulous. Among domestic creatures a degenerate life spoils the constitution ; in wild animals severity of weather curtails the natural duration.

Neither is this information much advanced by what may appear to be concomitants; namely, the size of the body, the time of gestation in the womb, the number of young, the time of growth, and the like; for these things are complicated, concurring in some cases and not in others.

1. The age of man (as far as can be gathered from any certain account) exceeds in length that of all other animal, with the exception of a very few. The concomitants in his case are generally regular, his stature and proportion lark, his gestation nine months, his offspring commonly single, his age of puberty fourteen, his time of growing up to twenty.

2. The elephant, on undoubted authority, exceeds the ordinary run of human life. The story that its period of gestation in the womb is ten years is fabulous 1 ; that it is two years or at least more than one is certain. It is of an immense size, and grows even to the thirtieth year; the teeth are extremely strong, and it has been observed that the blood is colder than that of any other animal. It sometimes lives two hundred years.

3. Lions have been considered long-lived because many of them are found toothless 2 ; but this is a fallacious sign, since it might proceed from their strong breaths.

4. The bear is a great sleeper; a dull and indolent beast, but not remarkable for long life. His period of gestation, which is very short (hardly forty days), is on the contrary a sign of a short life.

5. The fox seems to have many things suitable for a long life; be is very well clothed, feeds on flesh, and lives in holes; but yet he is not noted for longevity. Certainly he belongs to the canine race, which is short-lived.

6. The amel is long-lived; a lean, sinewy creature, which commonly reaches fifty and sometimes one hundred years.'

7. The horse lives only to a moderate age, scarce ever reaching forty, and ordinarily only twenty years. But for this shortness of life he is perhaps indebted to man, since we have now no horses of the sun that range at large in fresh pastures. Yet the horse grows up to its sixth year, and has generative powers in old age. The mare likewise goes longer with young than a woman, and less often produces two at a birth. The ass lives to about the same age as the horse; but the mule longer than either of them.

8. Stags are famed for long life, but upon no certain ground.5 There is however some story of a stag with a collar round its neck, being found with the collar buried in fat 6 But the longevity of the stag is the less credible, 'because it comes to its prime at five years; and not long after, the borns (which they shed and renew annually) grow closer in front, and less branched.

I Pliny, viii. 10. x Aristot. Hist An. ix. 4.1. ' Id. lb. vi. 30.

4 Id. ib. Vt. 26. and AM 9. 1 Id. ib. vi. 29. 1 Pliny, Vill. 50.

9. The dog is short-lived, its age never reaching beyond twenty, and not often to fourteen. It is an animal of a very hot nature, and lives unequally, being mostly either in violent motion or asleep. It likewise brings forth many in one litter, and goes with them nine weeks.

10. The ox also for its size and strength is short-lived, about sixteen years; the male being somewhat more long-lived than the female. Yet the cow seldom has more than one at a birth, and goes with calf about six months. They are of a dull and fleshy nature, easily fatted, and graminivorous.

11. Sheep seldom live to ten years', though they are a creature of moderate size, and excellently clothed; and what is strange, though they have very little bile in them, their wool is more curled and twisted than the hair of any other animal. The rams do not generate till the third year, and their powers continue till the eighth. The ewes bear young as long as they live. The sheep is a sickly animal, and seldom reaches its full age.

12. The goat lives to about the same age as the sheep, and does not much differ from it in other respects. Though he is a more active creature and his flesh is somewhat firmer, which should make him more long-lived; yet he is much more lascivious, which shortens his existence.

13. Swine sometimes live for fifteen or even for twenty years; and though their flesh is moister than that of any other animal, yet this seems to have no effect upon their length of life. Of the wild species nothing certain is known.

14. Cats live between six and ten years; an active animal, and of an acrid spirit, whose seed (according to AElian) burns the female; whence an opinion has prevailed, "that the cat conceives with pain and brings forth with ease." They eat voraciously, and rather swallow than chew their food.

15. Hares and rabbits scarcely reach to seven years. Both creatures are very prolific, carrying at once the young of several conceptions. They differ in this; that the rabbit lives in holes, the hare above ground ; and that the flesh of the hare is of a darker colour.

16. Birds in the size of their bodies are far less than beasts.

Pliny, vii]. 75.

An eagle or a swan by the side of an ox or a horse, and an ostrich by the side of an elephant, appear small.

17. Birds are excellently clad; since for warmth and close fitting to the body, feathers are better than either wool or hair.

18. Birds, though they hatch many at once, yet do not carry them all together in their bodies, but lay the eggs separately; whence the young are provided with a more plentiful aliment.

19. Birds masticate little, if at all, so that their food is often found whole in their crops. But yet they break the shells of fruits, and pick out the kernels. They are thought to be of a hot and strong digestion.

20. The flight of birds is a mixed motion formed by the motion of the limbs and that of carriage, which is the most healthy kind of exercise.

21. Aristotle remarked well concerning the generation of birds (but he, did wrong to transfer the observation to other animals), that the seed of the male contributes less to generation, but supplies activity rather than matter; whence in many respects prolific and unprolific eggs are not distinguishable.'

22. Almost all birds come to their full growth the first year or a little after. It is true that the plumage in some, and the bill in others takes years to come to perfection; but not the size of the body.

23. The eagle is considered long-lived, though its exact age is not ascertained. It is reckoned lilcewise as a sigh of' longevity, that he casts his beak, which makes him grow young; again; whence comes the proverb, " the old age of the eagle." But perhaps it is not the renewing; of the eagle which casts the bill, but the casting of the hill which renews the eagle; for when the beak becomes too hooked, the eagle has great difficulty in feeding.

24. Vultures likewise are said to be Ion.--Iivc(l, so its almost to reach a hundred years. Kites also, and all carnivorous birds and birds of prey, are long-lived. The natural ago of the hawk cannot be certainly decided, seeing that it, leads a servile and degenerate life for the use of man. But twine hawks have sometimes been known to live for thirty years, and wild ones for forty.

25. The raven likewise is reported to live long, sometimes for one hundred years. It feeds on carrion, is not much on the wing, but of sedentary habits, and with a very darkcoloured flesh. The crow, which is like the raven in every respect, except in size and voice, has a somewhat shorter life; yet it is still reckoned among the long livers.

26. The swan is known for certain to be very long-lived, and not unfrequently exceeds one hundred years. It is a bird of most excellent plumage, living on fish, and perpetually carried, and that in running waters.

27. The goose also is one of the long livers; though it feeds on grass and that kind of nourishment. But the wild goose is especially long-lived ; so that it passed into a proverb among the Germans, " older than a wild goose."

28. Storks ought to be very long-lived, if the old story is true, that they never went to Thebes, because that city was so often captured.' For if this were the case, they either could remember more than one age, or the old ones must have told the story to their young. But all things are full of fables.

29. The story of the phoenix again is so intermixed with fable, that if there was any truth in it, it is completely obscured. But there is nothing very remarkable in that which was looked on as a wonder; namely, how it was always accompanied in its flight by a great number of other birds. For this may be seen anywhere if an owl flies in the daytime, or a parrot escapes from a cage.

30. The parrot has certainly been known to live sixty years in England, in addition to its age when brought over. It is a bird which will live on all kinds of meat, masticates its food, and from time to time casts its beak; of a bad and mischievous temper, and with a black flesh.

31. The peacock lives twenty years'; but it does not get the Argus eyes before the third year; it is slow in walking, and has white flesh.

32. The dung-hill cock is lascivious, pugnacious, and shortlived; a very lively bird, that likewise has white flesh.

33. The Indian or Turkey cock lives longer than the former. It is an irascible bird, with very white flesh.

34. Wood-pigeons axe long-lived, sometimes reaching to fifty years ; a bird of the air, that builds and sits on high. Doves and turtle-doves are short-lived, not exceeding eight years.3

Cf. Pliny, x. 34. ° Cf. Arlstot Hist. An. vi. 9.

' Id. ib. Ix. 7. and Pliny, x. 52.

35. Pheasants and partridges sometimes live sixteen years. They are birds that have large broods; with flesh rather darker than that of the pullet tribe.

36. The blackbird is said to be the longest lived of all small birds. It is an impudent bird, but a good singer.

37. The sparrow is observed to be very short-lived 1, which in the male bird is attributed to its lasciviousness. The linnet, which is not much bigger than a sparrow, has been known to live for twenty years.

38. Of ostriches nothing certain is known, since those kept in England have unfortunately not been found to live long; of the ibis it is only known that it is long-lived, but its age is not recorded.

39. The age of fish is more uncertain than that of land animals, because from living under water they are less observed. Most of them have no respiration, and therefore the vital spirit is confined more closely; and though they take in some refrigeration through their gills, yet it is not so continual as by breathing.

40. From living in the water they avoid the desiccation and depredation of the external air. Yet there is no doubt but that the external water entering and abiding in the pores of the body is even more prejudicial to life than the air.

41. They are said to be cold-blooded. Some of them are very voracious, and feed even on their own species. The flesh is softer and less firm than that of land creatures; but they fatten exceedingly, so that an immense quantity of oil is extracted from whales.

42. Dolphins are reported to live about thirty years, an experiment having been made on some of them by cutting off their tails. They continue to grow for ten years.'

43. They tell a strange story of fishes, that after some years they diminish much in body, while their heads and tails retain their former size.

44. In Caesar's fishponds lampreys were sometimes found to live sixty years.' Certainly from long habit they grew so tame that Crassus the orator wept over one of them.'

45. The pike is found to be the longest lived of all fresh water fish, and sometimes lasts forty years. It is a voracious fish, with a dry and firm flesh.

46. Carp, bream, tench, eels, and the like, are not thought to live more than ten years.

47. Salmon are quick of growth but short of life; as also are trout; but perch are slow of growth and long of life.

48. How long the vast mass of matter in whales and sharks is governed by the spirit is not certainly known; nor in seals, sea-hogs and innumerable other kinds of fish.

49. Crocodiles are said to be very long-lived, and likewise to be remarkable for the time of their growth, so that it is thought that they are the only animals which continue to grow as long as they live. They are oviparous, voracious, savage, and excellently protected against the water. Concerning the age of the other kinds of shell fish, I find nothing certain is known.

Major Observations.

From the neglect of observations, and the complication of causes, it is difficult to discover any rule for the length and shortness of life in animals. Some few things however I will note.

1. More birds than beasts are long-lived (as the eagle, vulture, kite, pelican, raven, crow, swan, goose, ibis, parrot, woodpigeon, and the like); though they complete their growth in a year, and are of less size. Certainly they are excellently protected against the inclemency of the weather; and as they, generally live. in the open air, they resemble the inhabitants of pure mountains, who are long-lived. Their movements likewise, which (as has been mentioned elsewhere) are partly by carriage and partly by motion of the limbs, shake and fatigue them less, and are more healthy. Neither do birds in the first stage of their existence suffer compression or want of aliment in the mother's womb, because the eggs are laid separately. But the principal cause, as I take it, is that birds are made more of the substance of the female than of the male, whence they have a less hot and fiery spirit.

2. It may be laid down that animals which have more of the substance of the female than of the male are longer-lived; as I have just said, birds are. Again, that those which have a longer period of gestation partake more of the substance of the(Pliny, vial.)female than of the male, and are therefore more long lived Insomuch that even in men (as I have observed in some instances), those who are most like their mother do in my opinion live the longest; as also do the children of old men, by young wives, provided the fathers be healthy and not sickly.

3. The beginnings of things are most susceptible both of damage and of help; and therefore the less pressure and the more nourishment that the foetus receives in the womb the more likely is it to be long-lived. This happens either when the young are brought forth at separate times, as in birds; or when the birth is single, as in animals which only bring forth one at a time.

4. A long period of gestation lengthens life in three ways. First, as has been said, the young partakes more of the substance of the mother; secondly, it comes forth stronger;, and thirdly, it is later in undergoing the predatory action of the air. Besides, it denotes that the periods of nature revolve in larger circles. And though sheep and omen, which remain about six months in the womb, are short-lived, yet this arises from other causes.

5. Graminivorous and herbivorous animals are short-lived;but those which live on flesh, or even seeds or fruits (as birds do), are long-lived. For stags, which are long-lived, look for half their food (as they say) above their heads; and, the goose, besides grass, picks up something in the water to benefit it.

6. The covering of the body I judge to add greatly to longevity, as it prevents and repels the intemperances of the air which so strangely weaken and undermine the body; and with this birds are excellently provided. And though sheep which are well covered are short-lived, this must be attributed to the manifold diseases of the animal and the living upon grass alone.

7. The principal seat of the spirits is doubtless in the head; and though this is commonly referred only to the animal spirits, yet it applies to all. And there is no question that the spirits most absorb and consume the body, so that a larger quantity of them or a greater inflammation and acrimony greatly shortens life. It appears to me therefore that the great cause of longevity in birds is that they have such small heads for the size of their bodies; whence men likewise who have very Urge heads are, I think, shorter lived.

8. Carriage, as has been before observed, I judge more than any other motion to contribute to longevity. Water--birds, as the swan, are carried on the water; and all birds are carried as they fly, using however from time to time a strong exertion of the limbs. So also are fishes in swimming, but their length of life is uncertain.

9. Animals which come later to perfection (I am not speaking of growth in stature only, but of the other steps to maturity; as man puts out first his teeth, then his signs of puberty, then his beard, &c.), axe longer-lived; for it indicates that the periods return in wider circles.

10. The gentler kinds of animals, as the sheep and dove, are not long-lived; for bile acts as a whetstone or spur to many functions of the body.

11. Animals whose flesh is somewhat dark-coloured live longer than those with a white flesh; for it denotes that the juice of the body is firmer, and less easily dissipated.

12. In every corruptible body quantity itself contributes much to the preservation of the whole. For a large fire is not so soon quenched; a small quantity of water evaporates sooner; a twig withers sooner than the trunk. Generally therefoer (I speak of kinds, not of individuals) animals of a larger bulk arc more long-lived than those of a smaller; unless there is some other powerful cause to prevent it.

1. Nourishment should be of an inferior nature

Article- and a simpler substance than the body nourished. Plants are nourished by earth and water, animals by plants, men by animals. There are animals likewise which feed on flesh, and man himself feeds partly on plants; but man and carnivorous animals could hardly be nourished by plants alone. From time and habit they might perhaps be nourished by fruits and seeds that had passed the fire, but not by the leaves of plants or herbs; as has been proved by the order of the Feuillans.

2. Too near a relationship or similarity of substance between the nourishment and the thing nourished does not turn out well. Graminivorous animals do not touch flesh; even of carnivorous animals few eat the flesh of their own species ; nor do men that are cannibals feed ordinarily upon man's flesh, but take to it either for revenge on their enemies, or from some unnatural custom. A field is not well sown with the grain which grew in it, nor is the sucker or shoot grafted on its own stock.

3. The better the aliment is prepared, and the nearer it assimilates to the substance of the thing nourished, the more fruitful do plants become, and the more do animals fatten. For no shoot or sucker planted in the ground is so well nourished as if it were grafted on a stock well suited to its nature, where it found its nourishment digested and prepared. Neither (it is said) will the seed of an onion or the like, put into the earth, produce so large a plant as it would if it were first grafted into the root of another onion, and then put into the earth. Again, it has been recently discovered that shoots of wild trees, as the elm, oak, ash, and the like, bear far larger leaves when, grafted on other stocks than they do naturally. Men likewise are better nourished by cooked than by raw food.

4. Animals are nourished through the mouth, plants through the roots, the foetus of animals in the womb through the navel cord, and birds for a short time by the yolk of their eggs, some of which is even found in their crops after they are hatched.

5. All aliment moves principally from the centre towards the circumference, or from the inside towards the outside. But it should be observed that trees and plants are rather nourished through the bark and outside, than through the pith and inside; for if even a narrow strip of bark be peeled off all round the trunk the tree soon dies. And blood in the veins of animals nourishes the flesh beneath it as well as that above it.

6. In all alimentation there are two actions, extrusion and attraction; whereof the former proceeds from an interior, the latter from an exterior function.

7. Vegetables assimilate their aliment simply and without excretion ; for gums and tears are rather exuberances than excretions, and knobs are diseases. But the substance of animals having a better perception of its like, is the more fastidious, and rejects the useless and assimilates the useful matter.

8. It is curious that all the aliment, which sometimes produces such large fruit, should have to pass through such a, slender neck as the fruitstalk ; for fruit never grows to the stem without a stalk.

9. It should be observed that the seed of animals is only fruitful when fresh, but that the seeds of plants retain the power of nourishment for a long time. But yet shoots will not grow unless they are put in fresh; and roots will soon lose their vegetative power if they are not covered with soil.

10. In animals the degrees of nourishment vary according to the age. For the foetus in the womb the juices of the mother are enough: after birth, milk; afterwards, meat and drink; and in old age heavier and more savoury meats are generally the most pleasing.injunction. The point of most importance to the present inquiry is to examine clearly and carefully whether nourishment may not be supplied from without, at all events otherwise than through the mouth. We know that milk-baths are used in consumptions and wasting diseases, and that there are some physicians who consider that some alimentation may be supplied by clysters. By all means pay attention to this: for if nourishment can be made to pass either from without, or otherwise than through the stomach, then the weakness of digestion which attacks old men may by these means be compensated and the power of digestion as it were restored.

With reference 1. Before the flood men lived according to 6th,h?th. 6th. Scripture many hundred years, yet none of the

ert i lth

Articles. patriarchs reached to a thousand. Neither can this longevity be imputed to grace or the holy line. Fur of the patriarchs before the flood there are counted eleven generations, but of the sons of Adam by Cain only eight; which would make Cain's descendants the more long-lived.

Immediately after the flood this longevity was reduced by a half; at least in such as were born after the flood (for Noah who was born before it arrived at the age of his ancestors, and Shem lived 600 years).' And when three generations had passed the life of man was reduced to about a fourth of his original age; that is, to about 200 years.

2. Abraham lived 175 years 1; a man of noble spirit, and prosperous in all his ways. Isaac attained to 180 years 2 ; a chaste man, and of a quiet life. Jacob after many sorrows and a numerous family reached his 147th yearn; a man patient, gentle, and cunning. Ishmael, a warlike man, lived 137 years.4 Sarah (the only woman whose age is recorded) died in the 127th year of her ageb ; a woman of a fair countenance, and of a noble spirit, an excellent wife and mother, and no less distinguished for her frankness than for her duty to her husband. Joseph likewise, a wise and politic man, who passed his youth in afflic-tion but his after age in great prosperity, lived 110 years.s Levi his elder brother completed his 137th year 7; a man of a re-vengeful nature, and impatient of insult. The son of Levi, and likewise his grandson, the father of Moses and Aaron, reached nearly the same age.e

3. Moses lived 120 years'; a man of courage, and yet of the greatest meekness, and hesitating in his speech. But he himself in his Psalm declared. the life of man to be only threescore years and ten, and if a man be strong, fourscore years 1°; which certainly has been the general standard of life up to the pre-sent day. Aaron, who was three years older, died the same year as his brother"; a man readier of tongue, easier -and less firm in character. Phineas, Aaron's grandson, is com-puted to have lived (perhaps by extraordinary grace) 300 years, if at least the war of the Israelites against the tribe of Benjamin la (wherein Phineas was consulted) took place in the same order of time as is recorded in the history; he was a man exceedingly zealous. Joshua, a warrior, a renowned and ever successful general, lived 110 years.1a Caleb his contem-porary appears to have lived to about the same age. Ehud the judge seems to have been a centenarian at least; for after the conquest of the Moabites the Holy Land had rest for eighty years under his government 14 ; he was a bold and active man, who had in a manner devoted himself for the people:

4. Job after the restoration of his prosperity lived 140 years' ;

I Gen. xxv. 7. 2 Gen. xxxv. 28. ° Gen. xlvii. 28.

s Gen. xxv. 17. ' Gen. xxib. 1. ' Gen. 1. 26

T Exod. vi. 16. ° Exod. vi. 18. and 20. ® Deut. xxxiv. 7.

1° Psalm xo. 10. « Numb. xxxiii. 29. 'z Judges. xx. 28.

1. Josb. xxiv. 29. ~~ Judges, iii. 3,0. " Job, xni. 16.

245

and before his afflictions he was old enough to have grown-up suns; he was a man politic, eloquent, charitable, and a model of patience. Eli the priest lived ninety-eight years' ; a corpu-lent man, of a quiet temper, and indulgent to his children. Elisha the prophet seems to have been above 100 at his death, since we find that he lived sixty years after the assumption of Elijah, and at that time the boys mocked him as a bald-head.' He was a vehement and severe man, a strict liver, and a despiser of riches. Isaiah the prophet seems to have been a centenarian, for he is found to have exercised the gift of prophecy for seventy years; but the time he commenced to prophesy and the time of his death are both uncertain. He was a man of wonderful eloquence, and the evangelical prophet, being full of God's promises of the New Testament, as a skin full of sweet wine.

5. Tobias the Elder lived 158 years: the Younger, 127 years 3 ; both men compassionate and charitable. At the time of the captivity likewise, many of the Jews who returned from Babylon appear to have been of a great age; since (though there was an interval of seventy years) they are said to have remembered both temples, and to have wept for the disparity between them.' After the lapse of several ages, in tile time of our Saviour, Simeon is found to have reached 90 years; a religious man, full of hope and expectation. At the same time likewise Anna the prophetess is proved to have lived more than 100 years 5 ; for she had lived with her husband for seven years, and been a widow for eighty-four, and to these must be added the years of her virginity, and those which followed her prophecy of our Saviour. She was a holy woman, passing her life in prayer and fasting.

6. The instances of longevity mentioned in heathen authors are not to be depended on; both by reason of the fables, to which relations of this kind are very prone, and the fallacies in the calculations of years. In the accounts extant concern-ing the Egyptians there is certainly nothing remarkable as to longevity. For the longest reign of any of their kings did not exceed fifty or fifty-five years; which is nothing, seeing that modern reigns are sometimes as long. The kings of Arcadia are fabulously reported to have been very long-lived.1 Certainly it is - a mountainous and pastoral country, and the mode of life pure and uncorrupted; but yet, seeing that Pan was its tutelar deity, everything belonging to it appears to have been Panic, superstitious, and fabulous.

I Sam. iv. 15. 2 2 Kings, ii. 23. ° Tobit, ziv. 11. 14.

1 Ezra, iii. 12. 1 St. Luke, Iii. 36, 37.

7. Numa the Roman king was an octogenarian a ; a man peaceful, contemplative, and devoted to religion. M. Valerius Corvinus was a centenarian; since forty-six years elapsed between his first and sixth consulship.a He was a very brave and warlike man, affable, popular, and always fortunate.

8. Solon the Athenian lawgiver, and one of the seven wise men, lived for more than 80 years.' He was a man of noble spirit, but popular, and devoted to his country; at the same time learned, and yet not averse to pleasure and the softer kind of life. Epimenides of Crete is said to have lived 157 years; but the case has something of prodigy in it, since for fifty-seven of them he is said to -have lain concealed in.a cave.b Half a generation after this, Xenophanes of Colophon lived 102 years, or even longer; for he left his native country at twenty-five, travelled full seventy-seven years, and then returneds ; but how long he lived after his return does not appear. He was a man who wandered -no less in his mind than in his body; so that in consequence of his opinions his name was changed from Xenophanes to genomanes ; he was doubtless a man of vast conceptions, breathing nothing but infinity.

9. Anacreon the poet lived beyond 80 7 ; a man amorous, voluptuous, and a wine-bibber. Pindar the Theban completed his 80th year"; a sublime poet, with a certain novelty and originality of mind, and a great worshipper of the gods. So-phocles the Athenian lived to the same age 9 ; a poet of a lofty style, entirely devoted to writing, and neglectful of his family.

10. Artaxerxes the Persian king lived 94 years 1°; a man of a dull intellect, averse to important business, loving glory much, but ease more. Agesilaus, king of Sparta, at the same period attained to 84 years It; a moderate man, and a philo-sopher among kings; but nevertheless ambitious, warlike, and active both in war and business.

Pliny, vii. 49. ° Lucian, Macrobii, 8. ° Pliny, vii. 49.

' Diog. LaerL L 62. ° Pliny, vii. 49. ° Diog. Laert. is. 19.

' Lucian, Macrob. 26. ° Fabricius, Bibilotb. (lraca, G. 14.

° Lucian, Mauub. 34. ~° Lucian Macrob. 15. 11 Plut. In Agesil. p.618.

11. Gorgias of Leontini lived 108 years' ; a rhetorician, who made great display of his wisdom, and visited many countries, instructing youth for pay; and a little before his death said, "° that he had no cause to complain of old age." a Protagoras of Abdera lived 90 years.a He likewise was a rhe-torician, but professed not so much to deal with the whole circle of knowledge as to teach civil business and the art of govern-ment; yet he, like Gorgias, was a great traveller. lsocrates of Athens completed his 98th year'; being likewise a rhetorician, but an extremely modest man, who avoided the forum, and only opened his school at home. Democritus of Abdera lived to 109.6 He was a great philosopher, and a true student of nature, if ever Greek was; a great traveller in countries, but a greater still in the works of nature; a diligent experimenter; and (as Aristotle objects) a follower of similitudes rather than an observer of the laws of argu-ment. Diogenes of Sinope lived 90 years 6 ; a man free towards others, but despotic over himself, delighting in poor diet, and patience. Zeno of Citium lived 98 years 7 ; a high-minded man, a scorner of opinions, of great acuteness, yet not of a troublesome kind, but such as rather engaged and took men's minds than constrained them; wherein Seneca afterwards resembled him. Plato the Athenian fulfilled his 80th year e; a man of a great spirit, but loving quiet, in contemplation sublime and imaginative, in manners polite and elegant, but yet rather composed than merry, and of a majestic carriage. Theophrastus of Eresium lived 85 years 9; a man pleasant for his eloquence and his great variety of information; who only picked out the sweets of philosophy and did not meddle with the unpleasant or the bitter. Carneades of Cyrene, many years afterryards, likewise reached his 85th year"; a man of easy eloquence, who delighted both himself and others with the pleasant and agreeable variety of his knowledge. Orbi-lius in Cicero's time, who was neither a philosopher nor a rhetorician, but a grammarian, lived nearly 100 years ll ; first a soldier, then a schoolmaster; a man naturally harsh and rough, both with his tongue and pen, and very severe to his pupils.

Puny, vii. 49. ° Cie. de Senect. 5. ° Diog. Ix. 55.

Lucian. Macrob. 23. ° Diog. Laem ix. 43

° Diog. Laert. vi. 76. ' Diog. Laert. vii. 28.

° Lucian Macrob. 21. ; Dlog. Laert. ill. 2. ° Dlog. Laert. v. 40.

~° Dlog. Laert, iv. 65. ; Luc. Macrob. 20.

~~ Suetonius, De illuntr. Granuuat. c. 9

12. Q. Fabius Maximus was augur for sixty-three years 1, and therefore he must have been above eighty when he died; though it is true that in the augurship noble birth was usually more regarded than age. He was a wise and cautious man, moderate in all his ways of life; and uniting courtesy with severity. Masinissa the Numidian king exceeded 90 years, and had a son after he was eighty-five.2 He was a bold man, confident of fortune, who experienced many vicissitudes in his youth, but was uniformly fortunate in his old age. M. Porcius Cato lived for more than 90 years 3, a man of iron both body and mind, severe in speech, a lover of party strife, fond of agriculture, and physician both to himself his family.

13. Terentia, the wife of Cicero, lived for 103 years a woman oppressed by many sorrows, first by the banish-ment of her husband, then by the quarrel between them, and lastly by his final misfortune; she was likewise often troubled with the gout. Luceia must have lived a good deal beyond 100 years 5 ; since she is said to have acted for a full century on the stage, playing perhaps at first the part of a girl, and lastly that of a decrepit old woman. It is unknown in what year of her age Galeria Copiola, who was both an actress and a dancer, was first brought on the stage ; but ninety nine years after her first appearance she was brought back to the stage on the dedication of the theatre by Pompey the Great, not now as an actress, but as a wonder. And this is not all; for she was exhibited again at the votive games in honour of Augustus.'

14. There was also another actress, a little inferior in age but of a higher rank, who lived nearly 90 years; namely, Livia Julia Augusta, wife of Augustus, mother of Tiberius.7 For if the life of Augustus was a play (as he himself signi-fied, when on his death bed he told his fizends to give him a °° plaudite " as soon as he expired), so certainly was Livia an excellent actress, who could so well unite obedience to her husband with power and authority over her son. She was .a courteous woman, yet matronly, busy, and tenacious of power.  

i Pliny, vll. 49. • Valerius ritaximus, De Gratis.

e Cf. Cie. De Senect. 10. and ne Amic. 3. 4 Pliny, vil."49.

5 Pliny, vii. 49. ° Pliny, vil. 49.

', Cf. Liu Cassius, P. 611., amt Pliny, xiv. 8.

Junia, the wife of C. Cassius, and sister of M. Brutus, lived also to 90 ; since she lived sixty-four years after the battle of Philippi.' She was a woman of noble spirit and great wealth, unhappy by reason of the fate of her husband and her nearest relations, and her long widowhood, but yet much respected.

15. The 76th year of our Lord, in the reign of the Emperor Vespasian, is memorable as furnishing a kind of calendar of longevity.' For in this year a census (which gives the best and most trustworthy information as to the ages of men) was taken, and in that portion of Italy which lies between the Apennines and the Po there were found 124 men who had reached or passed their hundredth year; namely, fifty-four men 100 years old, fifty-seven men 110, two men 125, four men 130, four men 135 or 137, and three men 140. Besides these, Parma in particular returned five men, of whom three were 120, and two 130 years old; Brixillum one man of 125 ; Placentia one of 131 ; and Faventia, one woman of 132. A town (then called Velleiacum), situated on the hills surrounding Placentia, re-turned ten, of whom six' had completed their 110th, and four their 120th year; and Ariminum, one man aged 150 years, named M. Aponius.

Admonition. To avoid prolixity, I have thought fit both in the instances already recounted and in those which I am going to recount, to bring forward no age less than 80 ; and I have appended to each a character or biographical notice, true and very short, but such as in my judgment has some bearing upon longevity (which is in no alight degree influenced by fortune and habits); either because such persons are com-monly long-lived, or on the contrary because such persons, though not apt to live long, yet sometimes may.

16. Of the Roman, Greek, French, and German emperors, up to our time, containing a list of about 200 princes, only four have been found to reach the age of 80. To these we may add the two first emperors, Augustus and Tiberius; the latter being 78, the former 76 3; and both of whom might perhaps have reached 80, if Livia and Caligula had so willed it. Augustus (as has been mentioned) lived 76 years; a man of a moderate disposition, vehement in accomplishing his designs, but in other respects quiet and serene, temperate in his diet, but not so in his amours, and fortunate in everything. In his thirtieth year he had so severe and dangerous an illness that his life was despaired of; when the physician Antonius Musa, after all the rest had applied hot remedies as suited for the disease, cured him by a contrary system of cold medicines' ; and this perhaps contributed to his length of life. Tiberius lived to be two years older; a man (as Augustus said of him a) of slow jaws, that is, of slow but strong speech ; bloodthirsty, intemperate, and one who made lust part of his diet; and yet he took good care of his health, for he used to say that a man must be a fool who -called in or consulted a physician after he was thirty. The elder Gordian lived 80 years, and yet died a violent death, before he had scarce tasted the sweets of empire. He was a man noble and magnificent, learned and a poet, and up to the very time of his death uniformly fortunate. The Emperor Valerian lived 76 years before he was taken prisoner by the Persian king Sapor ; he lived after his captivity seven years in the midst of insult, and in the end died a violent death. He was a man of indifferent capacity, and not active; but of a somewhat higher reputation than he proved himself equal to in action. Anastasius, surnamed Dicorus, lived 88 years; a man of a sedate temper, but low-spirited, superstitious and timid. Anicius Justinianus lived 83 years; an ambitious man, personally indolent, but successful and famous through the valour of his generals; uxorious, and not his own master, but under the guidance of others. Helena of Britain, the mother of Constantine the Great, was an octo-genarian. She was a woman who never interfered in public affairs, either during the reign of her husband or of her son, but entirely devoted herself to religion; she was high-minded, and always prosperous. The Empress Theodora (who was the sister of Zoe, the wife of Monomacbus, after whose death she reigned alone) lived above 80 years. She was a busy woman and fond of empire, excessively fortunate, and rendered credulous by her prosperity.

17. From secular princes, I will now turn to the principal persons in the Church. St. John, the apostle and beloved disciple of our Saviour, lived 93 years; rightly denoted by the emblem of the eagle, breathing nothing but divine love, and distinguished as a seraph among the apostles by reason of the fervour of his charity. St. Luke the Evangelist lived to 84 t ; an eloquent man, a traveller, the inseparable companion of St. Paul, and a physician. Simeon the son of Cleophas, called the brother of our Lord, and Bishop of Jerusalem, lived 120 yearsa, and was then cut off by martyrdom; a high-spirited man, stedfast in the faith, and full of good works. Polycarp, the disciple of the Apostles, and Bishop of Smyrna, seems to have lived for more than 100 years before he suffered martyrdom ; a man of high soul, heroic patience, and incessant in his labours.a Dionysius the Areopagite, the contemporary of the Apostle Paul, seems to have lived 90 years. From the high flight of his divinity he was surnamed °° the Bird of Heaven;" and he was no less distin-guished for his works than for his meditations. Priscilla and Aquila, first the hosts of the Apostle Paul, and then his fellow-labourers, lived in a happy and famous wedlock for at least 100 years, since they were alive under the papacy of Sistus I. They were a noble pair, and given to all charity; who, besides other great consolations (which were doubtless vouchsafed to the early founders of the Church), had this great additional blessing of conjugal union. St. Paul the hermit reached 113 years. He lived in a cave, on such simple and hard diet as would appear scarce sufficient to support life; passing all his time in meditations and soliloquies, and yet not illi-terate, or an idiot, but a learned man. St. Antony, the first founder, or (according to some) the restorer of the monkish orders, reached the age of 105'; a devout man, and con-templative, but yet a good man of business; his manner of life was rough and austere, but yet he lived in a kind of glorious solitude, and not without authority. For he both had his monks under him, and moreover many Christians and philosophers came to visit him, as a living image, not without some feelings of adoration. St. Athanasius was above 80 when he died; a man of invincible firmness, always commanding fame, and never giving way to fortune; free towards those above him, courteous and acceptable to those below; practised in contentions, and both courageous and prudent therein. St. Jerome, by the authority of most writers, exceeded. 90 years ; a powerful writer and a manly speaker; learned both in languages=and sciences, and a great traveller. In. his old age he was. more austere in his living; but though. his life was private his spirit was high, and his light shone far out of his obscurity.

I Baronius, i. 586. = Eusebius, Hist. iii. 29.

3 Eusebius, Mist. iv. 15. 4 St. Athatias. Vita S. Auton. c. 89.

18. The Popes of Rome, up to the present time, are in number 241. Of these only five have. reached or exceeded 80 ; but many of the early popes had their, natural life -cut short by martyrdom. John XXIII., Pope of Rome, com-pleted his 90th year; a man of a restless disposition, who being fond of change altered many things, some to the better, not a few merely to something else; but a great accumu-lator of wealth and treasure. Gregory XII., who was created Pope during a. schism, a kind of an _ interres, died in his 90th year; but his papacy was so short, that I find nothing, to observe concerning him Paul III. lived to 81; a man of sedate temper and deep wisdom, a learned man and an astro-loger, and very careful, of his health; but, like the old.. priest Eli, indulgent to his relations. Paul IV. lived 83 years; a man naturally harsh and severe, of a haughty and imperious spirit, of a passionate temper, but eloquent and ready of tongue. Gregory XIII. likewise reached the same age; a truly good man, sound in mind and body, politic, temperate, and- full of good and charitable works.

19. The cases which follow. are promiscuous in their order, more doubtful in authority, and more scanty in observation. Arganthonius, king of Cadiz in Spain, lived 130 or (according to some) 140 years, for eighty of which he was on the throne.' Of his manners, .habits of life, and the time in which he lived, nothing is recorded. Cinyras, king of Cyprus, is said to have lived 150 or 160 years in that island, then reputed happy and voluptuous.a Two Latin kings of Italy, father and son, are said to have lived 800 and 600 years respectively; but this is only recorded by certain philologists, who (though otherwise credu-lous enough) have themselves doubted the truth of this story, nay, rather condemned it' Some kings of Arcadia are mentioned as having lived 300 years.' The country certainly is well adapted for long life, but perhaps the matter is exag-gerated by fables. There is a story of one Dando in Elyria who lived 500 years, without any of the inconveniences of old age.' It is said that among the Epii, which is a part of _lEtolia, all the people are very long-lived, many of them having been known to live 200 years. One of them especially, by name Litorius, a man of gigantic stature, had reached to 300.3 On the top of Mount Tmolus (anciently called Tempsis) many of the inhabitants are said to have lived 150 years.' The Es-senes among the Jews are related to have generally lived above 100 years 5; but that sect lived on a very simple diet, after the Pythagorean order. Apollonius of Tyana exceeded 100 years s; a man beautiful for his age, and truly wonder-ful; regarded as a god by the heathens, as a sorcerer by the Christians; a Pythagorean in his diet, a great traveller, of immense renown, and worshipped almost as a god; never-theless towards the close of his life he had to undergo accusa-tions and disgrace, though he contrived to escape in safety. But lest his longevity should be attributed to his Pythagorean diet alone, and to show that he derived some of it from his family, it may be mentioned that his father likewise lived 130 years. It is certain that Q. Metellus lived upwards of 100 years' ; and after a successful administration of several consul-shipa, being in his old age made Pontifex Maximus, he held that sacred office for twenty-two years ; yet his voice never faultered in repeating the vows, neither did his hands tremble in performing the sacrifices. Appius Ca;cus was certainly very old, but his age is not recorded." He was blind for the greater part of his life; but no way softened by this misfortune, he governed a numerous fanuly, a great retinue of clients, nay, the state itself, with a vigorous hand. Nay, in his last days, when carried on a litter into the senate, he spoke most ear-nestly against making peace with Pyrrhus. The beginning of his speech is very memorable, as showing the invincible strength and vigour of his mind. °° For these many years," said he, °~ conscript fathers, have I borne my blindness with extreme

Pliny, vii. 49. 2 Pliny, vii. 49.

' Valerius Maximus, xiii. 6. ; Pliny, Al. 49.

Pliny, vi:. 49. ° Joseph. De Bello Judaic. il.

° Philostr. in Vit. Appoll, c. 13.

° Val. Max. viii. 13. ° VaL Max. viii. 13.

impatience; but now I could even wish myself deaf also, when I hear you talking of such dishonourable .counsels." i M. Perpenna lived 98 years; having survived all those whose vote he as consul had asked in the senate (that is, all the senators during his year of office); and also, with the exception of seven, all those whom' a little after as censor he had elected into the senate.a Hiero, king of Sicily in the time of the second Punic war, was almost a centenarian $; a man moderate both in his government and manners, a- wor-shipper of the gods, a strict observer of friendabip, liberal, and uniformly fortunate. Statilia, of a noble family, in the time of Claudius, lived 99 years'; Clodia, the daughter of Ofilius, 115.5 Xenophilus, an old Pythagorean philoso-pher, lived 106 years s; a hale and vigorous old man, with a great reputation among the people for learning. The Cor-cyreans were anciently reputed long-lived, but now their age is of the ordinary length. Hippocrates of Cos, the famous physician, lived 104 years, and by the length of his life approved and credited his own art. He was a man of wisdom as well as learning, much given to experiments and observation, not striving after words or methods, but picking outthe very nerves of science and so setting them forth. Demo-naz, a philosopher (both by practice and profession) in the time of Adrian, lived almost to 100 7; a man of high mind and master of his mind, and that truly without affectation; a despiser of the world, but courteous and polite. When his friends asked him about his burial, he replied, °° Take no care about my burial, for stench will bury a corpse." °° Do you wish, then," said they, 11 to be thrown out to the doga and birds?" °° If," said he, °° in my lifetime I did my best to benefit man, what harm is there if, when I am dead, I likewise do something for the animals?" A people- of India called Pandorae are very long-lived, lasting even for 200 years.$ They say also (which is more strange) that their hair, which is nearly white in boyhood, turns black in old age, before it grows hoary; though indeed it is common every-where for light hair in the boy to turn darker in the man. The Seres likewise, another Indian people, with their palm-wine,

I Plat L 594. z Pliny, vii. 49. 5 Val. Mm AB. 13.

a Pliny, vii. 49. ' id. ib. ° Lucian, Macrob. c. 18.

7 Lucian, Demonax, 66. ° May, vii. 2.

265

are reputed to live as long as 130 years.' Euphranor the gram-marian continued to teach in his school till he was above 100.2 The elder Ovid, the father of the poet, lived 90 years; he was of a different character from his son, as he despised the Muses and dissuaded his son from poetry.a Asinius Pollio, the friend of Augustus, exceeded 100 years.' He was a man extremely luxurious, eloquent, and devoted to literature; but yet violent, proud, cruel, and selfish. It is a common idea that Seneca was very old, and no less than 114. But this cannot be true; for fir from being a decrepit old man when he was appointed tutor to Nero, he was on the contrary exceedingly active in the go-vernment. Besides, a little before, in the middle of the reign of Claudius, he was banished for adultery with some noble ladies, a thing not compatible with such an age. Johannes de Temporibus among all the men of later times is by tradition and common report reputed long-lived, even to a miracle or rather a fable, his age being said to be above 300. He was by birth a Frenchman, and served under Charlemagne. Gartius of Aretium, great grandfather to Petrarch, lived 104 years. He always enjoyed good health, and at the end felt a decay of strength rather than any malady ; which is the true dissolution by old age. Many Venetians of high rank were long-lived; as the Doge Franciscus Donatus, Thomas Contarenus and Franciscus illolinus procurators of 8t. Mark, and others. But the most memorable instance is that of the Venetian Cornaro, who being of sickly body in his youth, began for the sake of his health to measure his meat and drink by weight. This custom led by degrees to a fixed diet, and the diet to a very long life, of even more than 100 years', with unimpaired faculties and constant health. Guillaume Postel, a Frenchman, in our time, lived nearly 120 years; the top of his moustache being still black, and not at all grey. He was a man of dis-ordered brain and unsound mind, a great traveller sad mathe-matician, and somewhat tainted with heresy.

20. In England I imagine there is scarce any village of any size in which an octogenarian man or woman may not be found. A few years ago, at a May-game in Herefordshire, a lnorrice dance was performed by eight men, whose united ages made up 800 years; some of them' exceeding 100, by as much as others fell short.

Of. Pliny, vii. 2. 2 Suidas in v. Apion.

3 I)vid, Tristia, iv. 10. 77 ' Cf. Pliny, xxii. 53.

Flourcn,, De la Longcviti•, p. 33.

21. In Bethlehem hospital in the suburbs of London, insti-tuted for the support and custody of lunatics, there are found from time to time madmen who live'to a great age:

22. The ages of nymphs and demons of the air, who are represented as mortal, yet as very long-lived (a thing that has been -admitted by the superstition and credulity of the ancients, and even by some in modern times), I hold to be fables and dreams, especially as they agree neither with philosophy nor religion.

And so much for the history of longevity in man considered in individual cases or next to individual. I will now proceed to observations by certain heads.

23. The lapse of ages and the succession of generations do not appear to have at all diminished the length of life. For from the -time of Moses to the present day the course of man's life has stood at about eighty years, not gradually and insensibly de-clining, as might have been expected. There are periods indeed in every country when men are longer or shorter lived. Longer generally, when they are less civilised, live on simpler diet, and are more given to bodily exercise; shorter, when they are more civilised and given more to ease and luxury; but these things come and go in their turns; the succession of generations .has nothing to do with them. And no' doubt the same holds. good with the other animals ; since neither oxen nor horses, nor sheep and the like, have become more short-lived in these latter times. Therefore the great diminution of age was caused by the flood; and may perhaps by the like great accidents (as they call them), ouch as particular inundations, long droughts, earthquakes and the like, be caused again. And this seems to hold good like-wise in the size or stature of the body. For neither has this deteriorated through the succession- of generations; though Virgil (following the common opinion) prophesied that pos-terity would be smaller than the men of that age; and there-fore in speaking of the ploughing of the ~Emathian and Amo-nian fields, he says, °1 the husbandman will wonder at the huge bones that shall be dug up." i It is certain indeed, from remains found in old tombs and caverns in Sicily and

I Virg. Georg. L 499.: 11 Grandiaque effossis mirabitur ossa sepulcris,"

elsewhere, that men of gigantic stature formerly existed; but now for 3000 years, a time whereof our information is certain, no instance of the kind has occurred in those places. But yet in this, as in the former case, certain changes have taken place by reason of the manners and customs of the people. And these things are the more to be observed, because an idea has settled itself in the minds of men that a continual decline is going on, both in the length of life and the size and strength of the body, and that everything decays and deteriorates.

24. Men generally live longer in cold and northern climates than in warm ones. And this must needs be; for the skin is tighter, the juices of the body less easily dissipated, the spirits less eager to consume and more easily repaired, and the air, as being only slightly warmed by the sun's rays, less predatory. But below the equinoctial line, where there are two summers and two winters, and a greater equality in the lengths of day and night, men likewise (if nothing else prevents them) live to a considerable age, as in Peru and Ceylon.

25. Islanders generally live longer than those that live on continents. Men do not live so long in Russia as in the Ork-neys, nor so long in Africa, though in the same latitude, as in the Canaries and Azores. The Japanese likewise live longer than the Chinese, though the latter have a mania for long life. And in this there is no wonder, seeing the sea-breeze warms and cherishes in cold countries, and cools in hot.

26. Inhabitants of high places live longer than of those which lie low; especially if they are not the tops of bills, but lands generally elevated, like Arcadia in Greece, and part of .2Etolia, where the natives were very long-lived. The same would hold good of mountains themselves, because of the greater clearness and purity of the air, if it were not for an accident; namely, that the air is tainted by the vapours rising from the vallies and resting there. Among the snow-mountains therefore no remarkable longevity is found; not in the Alps, nor the Pyrenees, nor the Apennines; but on the lower hills and even in vallies men are more long-lived. However, on the tops of the mountains running towards Ethiopia, and. Abys-sinia, where, as the soil consists of sand, little or no vapour settles on the mountains, men are very long-lived, and even at this day often complete 150 years.

Pliny, vii. 17. 2 Pliny, vii. 2.

27. Marshes and fens, especially if they are flat., are favour-able to natives, but prejudicial to strangers, as far as longevity is concerned. And what may appear strange, salt marshes which are covered at high water are less healthy than those of fresh water.

28. The particular countries remarkable for the longevity of their inhabitants are Arcadia, IEtolia, India on this side the Ganges, Brazil, Ceylon, Britain, Ireland, the Orkneys, and.the Hebrides. As for that which is said by one of the ancients, that the Ethiopians were long-lived, it is report of no value.'

29. The salubrity of the air, especially in any degree of perfection, is a mysterious thing, and better discovered by-ex-periment than by discourse and conjecture. The experiment may be tried by a lock of wool, if, on being exposed for a few days to the open air, it loses little weight; or by a piece of meat remaining long fresh; or by the water in a thermometer rising and falling through a small space. Of these things and the like make further inquiry.

30. The equality of the air, as well as the goodness and purity, is important for longevity. Variety of hill and valley, though pleasant to the eye and the sense, is suspected .with regard to longevity; but a plain moderately dry, yet not too barren or sandy, nor entirely devoid of trees and shade, is most adapted to long life.

31. Inequality of the air, as has been just now said, is bad for dwelling in; but change of air in travelling, when one is accustomed to it, is good, and therefore.great travellers have been long-lived. So likewise men who have passed their whole lives in the same cottage or on the same spot, are-long-lived. For the air to which a man is accustomed is less pre-datory; but change of air is more nourishing and restoring.

32. Though it has been observed that the continuation and number of generations have nothing to do with the length and shortness of life, yet the immediate condition of the parents, both on the father's and mothers side, is doubtless very im-portant. Some are begotten by. old men, some by young, and some by men in the prime of life; some when their fathers are healthy and well-disposed, others when weak and sickly; some when full or drunk ; others after sleep, or in the inorn- ng ;

Pliny, vii. 2. Herod. iii. 23.

259

some again after a long intermission, and others after a frequent repetition of the conjugal act; some (as generally in the case of bastards) in the heat of passion, others when desire begins to cool, as in the case of long-married couples. The same things must be considered on the mother's side, together with her condition, health, and diet while she is with child, and the time of gestation, whether it be ten months or less. To reduce all this to a rule for longevity is diffi-cult, and the more so because what a man would think best may perhaps prove the worst. For that alacrity in generation which produces children strong and active will have a tendency to stop longevity, by reason of the acri-mony and inflammation of the spirits. I have before ob-served, that to have more of the mother's blood contri-butes to longevity ; and in like manner I suppose everything in moderation to be the best; conjugal affection to be better than meretricious; the morning to be the best time for generation; and a state of body not too lusty and full, and the like. It should also be well observed that a robust habit of body in the parents is better for them than for the child, especially in the mother. Plato therefore judged wrongly that the virtue of generations was impaired, because women did not use the same mental and bodily exercises as men.' For the contrary is true, and the difference of strength between the male and female is most beneficial to the child; and the more delicate or tender the mother or nurse is, the more nourishment does she afford to the child. The Spartan women, who did not marry before twenty-two (or twenty-five, according to some 2), and were therefore called Andromanx, did not produce a nobler or more long-lived offspring than the Roman, Athe-nian, or Theban women did, who were marriageable at twelve or fourteen. And if there was anything remarkable in the Spartans, it was rather due to their simple living than to the late marriage of the women. But experience shows, that some families are for a time long-lived; so that longevity, like diseases, is for certain periods hereditary.

33. Persons of fair complexion, skin, and hair, are less Iona-lived than those who are dark, red, or freckled. Too high a colour in youth is not so good a sign of longevity as paleness.

(Plato, Rep. v. § 3. T Plutarch, Comp. Lycurg. cum Numa, i. p. 77.)

A hard skin is better than a soft one; and herein I do not mean that thick and spongy skin, called the goose-.skim= but one which is both hard and close; and a deep wrinkled brow is a better sign than a smooth and shining one.

34. Rough and. bristly hair gives a better prospect of long life than that which is soft and delicate. Curls also, if they be stiff, indicate the same; but the contrary.if soft and glossy. Likewise thick curls are better than long locks.

35. Early or late baldness is a thing immaterial; for many bald men have been long-lived. Nor are early grey hairs (though they appear to be the precursors of old age) any sure sign; for many who have turned grey early have lived late. Nay, premature greyness without baldness is a sign of longevity; but the contrary if it be attended with it.

36. Hairiness of the upper parts of the body is a sign of short life; and men with hairy breasts, like manes, are short-lived; but hairiness in the lower parts, as the thighs and legs, indicates longevity.

37. Tallness of stature (unless it is excessive), in a body well made and not too slender, but especially if it is accom-panied by activity, is a sign of long life. But, on the contrary, men of short stature live longer, if they are less active, and slower of motion.

38. With regard to the proportion of the body; those who are short in the body but long in the legs live longer than those who are long in the body and short in the legs. So. like-wise, those who are wider below and narrower above, the body rising as it were to a point,.are more long-lived, than men with broad shoulders, who taper downwards.

39. Leanness, if the passions are settled, calm, and easily controlled; or a full habit, if they be choleric, excitable and obstinate, betoken a long life. In youth corpulency foreshows an early death, but in old age it is more indifferent.

40. To grow long and slowly is a sign of longevity, and the taller the stature the better the sign. But, on the other hand, rapid growth to a great stature is a bad sign, but to a shorter-stature less bad.

41. Firmness of flesh, a muscular and sinewy body, buttocks not spread out more than is required for sitting, and veins some-what prominent, indicate a long life; the contrary to these a short one.

42. A head small in proportion to the body; a moderate-sized neck, neither too long and slender, nor too thick and sunk into the shoulders; wide nostrils, whatever the form of nose; a large mouth; ears gristly, not fleshy; teeth strong and close set, not weak and scanty, are signs of long life; and much more so if new teeth come late in life.

43. A broad chest, but rather drawn in than prominent; shoulders somewhat round and bowed (as they call it); a flat stomach; a large hand, with few lines in the palm; a short round foot; thighs not very fleshy; and a calf not drooping but firm, are signs of longevity.

44. Eyes rather large, with an iris of a greenish colour; senses not too acute; a pulse slow in youth, but quicker as age increases; a power of holding the breath easily and long; the bowels more costive in youth, and looser in old age, are likewise all signs of longevity.

45. On the connection between longevity and the times of nativity nothing has been observed worth recording, except some astrological observations which I dismissed in the Topics. An eight months' child is deemed not only not long-lived, but not likely to live. Children born in the winter are considered to live long.

46. A Pythagorean or monastic diet according to the stricter rules, or one exactly regulated like that of Cornaro, seems to have a strong tendency to prolong life. Yet on the other hand, of such as live freely and in the common way, the greatest glut-tons, and those most devoted to good living, are often found the most long-lived. The middle diet, which is esteemed temperate, is commended, and contributes to health, but not to longevity. For the stricter diet generates few spirits, and those of a sluggish nature, which consume the body less; and the freer diet affords abundant nourishment, which restores the body more; but the middle diet does neither. For where extremes are prejudicial, the mean is the best; but where extremes are beneficial, the mean is mostly worthless. But the strict diet likewise requires watching, lest the spirits being few should be oppressed by too much sleep; little exercise, lest they should be discharged; and chastity, lest they should be ex-hausted. But the full diet on the contrary requires plenty of sleep, frequent exercise, and seasonable use of venery. Baths and ointments such as have been in use are more suited for luxury than the prolongation of life. But all these sub-jects I will discourse of more fully when I come to inquire of intentions. In the mean time we should not neglect the, ad-vice of Celsus', a wise as well as a learned physician, who advises variety and change of diet, but with an inclination rather to the liberal side; namely, that a man should at one time accustom himself to watching, at another to sleep, but oftener to sleep; sometimes fast and sometimes feast, but oftener feast; sometimes strenuously exert, sometimes relax the fa-culties of his mind, but oftener the latter. But doubtless a well-regulated diet most contributes to the prolongation of life; and I never met a very old man, who on being asked had not observed some peculiarity of diet; some one thing, some another. I remember an old man above a hundred, being brought as a witness about some ancient prescription, who when at the end of his evidence he was familiarly asked by the judge, °C what means he had taken to live so long," answered unex-pectedly, and amidst the laughter of the audience, °° By eating before I was hungry, and drinking before I was thirsty." But of these things (as I said) I will speak hereafter.

47. A life spent in religious and holy offices seems to contri-bute to longevity. This kind of life_is attended with leisure, admiration and contemplation of heavenly things, pure joys, noble hopes, salutary fears, sweet sorrows, and lastly, con-tinued renewals, by observances, penances and atonements, which have all a strong tendency to prolong life. And if besides these there is a strict diet to harden the substance of the body, and lower the spirits, no wonder if remarkable longevity ensue; like that of Paul the Hermit, Simeon Sty-lites the columnar anchorite, and many other hermits and anchorites.

48. Next to this life comes that of letters, as that of the philosophers, rhetoricians, and grammarians. Here also life is passed in leisure, and in meditations which, having no relation to the affairs o£ life, breed no anxiety, but delight by their variety and freedom. These men live as they please, passing their days and hours in the things they like best, and mostly in the company of youth, which is more cheerful. But there is a great difference in the longe-vity of philosophers, according to their different tenets.

The best philosophies for the purpose are those which have some touch of superstition, and deal with sublime coutem-plations, as the Pythagorean and Platonic; those likewise 'which comprised within themselves the survey of the universe, the variety of nature, unbounded, deep and noble thoughts concerning the infinite, the stars, the heroic virtues, and the like, were good, as were those of Democritus, Philolaus, Xeno-phanes, the astrologers and the stoics ; and so were those which contained no deep speculation, but from common sense and common opinions discussed questions calmly on either side, without any laborious inquiry. Such were the sects of Carneades and the academicians, the rhetoricians and gram-inarians. But on the other hand, philosophies dealing with troublesome subtleties, dogmatic, weighing and wresting everything to the standard of certain principles; and lastly, those that were crabbed and narrow, were bad; and such were mostly the sects of the peripatetics and schoolmen.

49. A country life is likewise adapted to longevity. It is much out of doors and in the open air, not indolent but active, living generally on fresh and home-made food, and free from care and envy.

50. I have also a good opinion of a military life in youth. Many famous warriors have certainly been long-lived, as Cor-vinus, Camillus, Xenophon, Agesilaus, and many others both ancient and modern. And it doubtless tends to longevity to have all things growing smoother and easier as age comes on: so that a youth spent in toil may sweeten old age. The mili-tary passions likewise, excited in the desire for contest and the hope of victory, appear to me to infuse such a warmth into the spirits as is advantageous to longevity.

In connection The present system of medicine only regards with the preservation of health and the cure of diseases; but of the things that properly .relate to longevity it makes little mention, and only by the way. I will however set forth the medicines of note in this kind, namely, those that are called °1 cordials." For it is probable that remedies taken to defend and fortify the heart, or more correctly the spirits, against poisons and diseases, may, 'if judiciously selected and .transferred to diet, tend likewise in some degree to prolong life; and in doing this I will not heap them promiscuously together, as is usually done, but select the best.

1. Gold is used in three forms; either in what is called potable gold, or in wine in which gold has been quenched; or in substance, as gold leaf and filings. With regard to potable gold, it is now given as a strong cordial in dangerous or desperate maladies with tolerable success. But it appears to me that the spirits of salt by which the solution is made, rather than the gold itself, supplies the virtue that is found therein; but this is carefully suppressed. Now if gold could be opened without corrosive waters, or by corrosive waters (provided they had no poisonous qualities) that were after-wards well washed, I conceive it would be a useful thing.

2. Pearls are taken, either in a fine powder or in a kind of paste or solution made by the juice of very sour and fresh lemons. Sometimes they are given in aromatic confections, sometimes in a fluid form. Pearls no doubt have some affinity with the shells wherein they grow, and perhaps may have nearly the same qualities as the shells of crawfish.

3. Of crystals two are chiefly regarded as cordials, the emerald and the jacinth; ,which are given in the same forms as pearls, excepting that, as far as I know, their solutions are not used. But I am somewhat suspicious of these glassy jewels, by reason of their roughness.

Admonition. I will mention afterwards how far and in what manner these things here mentioned may be used with advantage.

4. Bezoar stone is of approved virtue for refreshing the spirits and raising a gentle perspiration. The unicorn's horn has lost its reputation, yet it still stands as high as hartshorn, the bone of the stag's heart, ivory, and the like.

5. Ambergris is one of the best things for soothing and com-forting the spirits. Here follows an enumeration of the simple cordials, by name only: their virtues being sufficiently known.

Hot. Saffron: folium In- Cold. Nitre: roses: violets dim : lignum aloes: citron strawberry plants: strawber-rind : balm: basil: clove gil- ries_: the juice of sweet le-lyflowers : orange flowers: moms : the juice of oranges rosemary: mint: betony : car- the juice of apples: borage duus benedictus. bugloss: burnet: sandal-wood: camphire.

265

Admonition. As I am now discoursing only of those medi-cines which may be transferred into diet, all strong waters and chemical oils (which as some trifler says lie under the planet of Mars, and have a violent and destructive power), nay, all acrid and pungent spices, are to be rejected; and it should be observed how waters and fluids may be com-pounded from the preceding simples; not phlegmatic dis-tilled waters, nor on the other Band burning waters from spirits of wine, but such as are more temperate, yet lively, and emitting a grateful vapour.

6. I am in some doubt whether frequent bleeding tends to longevity; but I rather incline to believe that it does, if it be turned into a habit, and other things are favourable thereto. For it discharges the old juices of the body and lets in new.

7. Some wasting diseases likewise, if well cured, do in my opinion assist longevity. For the old juices being consumed they supply new ones; and as one says, °° to recover health is to renew youth." It would be well therefore to induce some artificial diseases, as is done by strict and emaciating diets, whereof I will speak hereafter.

In connertion Having now finished the inquiry according to 13th the 12th the subjects, namely, inanimate bodies, vegetables 13th, and 14th D Au„9• animals> and man> I will draw nearer to the matter

Transition. and commence an inquiry according to intentions ;

such as I fully believe to be true and proper, and as it were the pathways of mortal life. In this part nothing of any value has been hitherto inquired; and men's thoughts concerning it have been superficial and unprofitable. For when on the one side I hear men talk of comforting the Natural Heat, and the Radical Moisture, of meats which breed good blood, that is, neither burning nor phlegmatic, and of the reviving and refreshment of the spirits, I suppose them to be well meaning men who talk thus; but none of these things are effectual for the end. But when on the other side I hear discourses on medicines prepared from -old (because forsouth gold is not subject to corruption); on the use of precious stones to refresh the spirits, by reason of their secret properties and brilliancy; that if balsams and the quintessences of living creatures could be received and detained in vessels, there would be good hope of immortality; that the flesh of serpents and deer by a kind of sympathy have power to renew life, be-cause the one casts its slough, the other its horns (they should have added likewise the flesh of the eagle, for the eagle casts its beak); that a certain man who found an ointment buried in the earth, and anointed himself therewith from head to foot, excepting only the soles of his feet, lived in consequence 300 years, free from all disease, except swellings on the soles of his feet; that Artefius, when he felt his spirit failing, drew into himself the spirit of a strong young man, thereby killing him, but continuing his own life for many years by means of that other man's spirit; when I hear of fortunate hours, ac-cording to the figures of heaven, in which medicines for the prolongation of life are to be collected and prepared; of planetary seals by which virtues may be extracted and brought down from heaven to prolong fife, and such like fables and superstitions, I wonder exceedingly that men should be so demented as to be imposed upon by them. Lastly, I pity the hard fortune of mankind in being surrounded on all sides by things frivolous and unprofitable. With regard to my own Intentions, I trust that they both come close to the point, and are far removed from idle and credulous superstitions; being likewise, I conceive, of such a nature that while posterity may add much to the things which satisfy these intentions, they will find little to add to the intentions themselves.

There are however a few things that are yet of great importance, whereof I would have men forewarned.

First, I am of opinion that the duties of life are preferable to life itself. Wherefore, if there be anything which may exactly answer our intentions, yet interferes at all with the offices and duties of life, I reject it. I may perhaps make some light mention of things of this kind, but I by no means insist upon them. For I do not enter into any serious or accurate discourse either of living in caves, like the cave of Epimenides, where the sunbeams and changes of temperature never penetrate; or of perpetual bathing in prepared liquors; or of shirts and cerecloths so applied that the body should always be in a kiPA of case; or of thick covers of paint on the body, after the manner of savages; or of that exact regulation of food and diet which makes the preservation of life its sole object, to the neglect of everything else (such as that of Herodicus among the ancients t, and Cornaro of Venice in our days, though with more modera-tion); or of any such strange, nice, and inconvenient matters. But I prescribe such remedies and precepts as will neither pre-vent the duties of life, nor hinder and embarrass them too much.

Secondly, on the other hand, I warn men to give up trifling, and not to imagine that so great a work as the stopping and turning back of the powerful course of nature can be performed by a morning draught, or the use of some precious drug; but to consider it certain that a work of this kind must necessarily be very laborious, and consist of many remedies, and those aptly connected with one another. For no man can be so dull as to believe that what has never yet been done can be done, except by means hi:herto unattempted.

Thirdly, I candidly admit that some of the propositions here laid down have not been proved by experiment (for my course of life permits not of that), but are only derived, with what appears to me the best reason, from my principles and hypo-theses (whereof I insert some and reserve others in my mind), and as it were cut and dug out of the rock and mine of nature herself. Yet I have not been careless, but (seeing that I was dealing with the body, whereof the Scripture says that it is above raiment), have used all prudence and circumspection in propounding such remedies, as, if by chance they are not fruitful, are at least safe.

Fourthly, I would have men duly to observe and distinguish that the same things which conduce to health do not always conduce to longevity. For some things which are of use to cheer the spirits and to strengthen and invigorate the functions, yet take away from the sum of life. Again, there axe other things very beneficial in prolonging life, yet that are not without danger to the health unless guarded against by proper means. On these points however, as occasion requires, I will not; neglect to exhibit proper cautions and admonitions.

Lastly, I have thought it right to propose sundry remedies, according to each intention, but the choice and order thereofto leave to discretion. For to describe exactly the things most suitable to the different constitutions of bodies, to the different kinds and respective ages of life, in wbat order they are to -be taken, and how their whole practice. is to be administered and governed, would be too long a work, and unfit to be published.

In the Topics I propounded three Intentions; namely, the Prevention of Consumption, the Perfecting of Repair, and the Renovation of Decay. But seeing that what I am about to say is something more than mere words, I will draw out these three Intentions into ten Operations:

1. The first operation is upon the spirits, to renew their freshness.

2. The second operation is upon the exclusion of air.

3. The third operation is upon the blood, and the sangue-fying heat.

4. The fourth operation is upon the juices of the body.

5. The fifth operation is upon the bowels, for the extrusion. of aliment.

6. The sixth operation is upon the outer parts of the body, for the attraction of aliment.

'T. The seventh operation is upon the aliment itself, for the insinuation thereof.

8. . The eighth operation is upon the final act of assimilation..

9. The ninth operation is upon the intencration of the parts after they have begun to dry.

10. The tenth operation is upon the purgation of the old juice, and the substitution of new.

Of these operations the four first belong to the first inten-tion, the four next to the second, and the two last to the third. But as this part concerning Intentions points to practicc, under the title of history I will include not only experiments--and observations, but also counsels, remedies, explanations of causes, assumptions, and all things relating thereto.

I.

1. The spirits are the agents and workmen that produce all the effects in the body. This appears manifcst both by general consent and by innumerable instances.

2. If it were possible for young spirits to be put into an old body, it is probable that this great wheel might put the lesser wheels in motion, and turn back the course of nature.

3. In every kind of consumption, whethgr by fire or age, the more the spirit of the thing, or the heat, preys upon the moisture, the shorter is the duration of that thing. This occurs everywhere, and is plain.

4. The spirits are to be put into such a temperament., and such a degree of activity that (as one says) they shall not drink and absorb, but only sip the juices of the body.

5. There are two kinds of flames; the one active but weak, as the flame of straw or chips, that consumes and dis-charges lighter substances, but has little effect upon the harder; the other strong and steady, as the flame of large timber and the like, which attacks likewise hard and tough bodies.

6. The brisk and yet weak flame dries up bodies, and make them effete and sapless; whilst the strong flame softens and melts them.

7. Of dissipating medicines, some only draw forth the thinner parts of tumours, and thereby harden them; but some discuss them vigorously, acid thereby soften them.

8. Of purging and clearing medicines likewise, some carry suddenly off the more fluid parts, and some draw the more obstinate and viscous.

9. The spirits should be clad and armed with such a heat that they may prefer rather to pluck asunder and undermine the hard and obstinate parts, than to discharge and carry off such as are weak and prepared; for by this means the body becomes fresh and firm.

10. The spirits should be so tempered and ordered, as to become in substance dense, not rare; in heat lasting, not eager; in quantity sufficient for the offices of life, not redundant or excessive; in motion settled, not starting or irregular.

11. Vapours evidently operate powerfully upon the spirits; as is shown by sleep, intoxication, melancholy and mirthful passions, and recovery of the spirits in swoons and fainting fits by odours.

12. The spirits are condensed in four ways; by putting them to flight, by cooling, by soothing, or by quieting them. And first of their condensation by flight.

13. Whatever puts to flight from all sides drives the body to its centre, and therefore condenses.

14. Opium is by far the most powerful and effectual means for condensing the spirits by flight; and next to it opiates and soporifics in general.

15. The power of opium to condense the spirits is very remarkable; for perhaps three grains will in a short time so coagulate them that they cannot separate, but are quenched and rendered immoveable.

16. Opium and similar drugs do not put the spirits to flight by their coldness (for they have parts manifestly warm), but contrariwise they cool by putting the spirits to flight.

17. The flight of the spirits by means of opium and opiates is best seen when they are applied externally; for the spirits instantly retire and will return no more, but the part mor-tifies and turns to a gangrene.

18. Opiates give relief in great pain, as the stone, or amputation of a limb; principally by putting the spirits to flight.

19. Opiates draw a good effect from a bad cause; for the flight of the spirits is bad, but the condensation thereof by that flight is good.

20. The Greeks imputed much to opium, both for health, and prolongation of life; but the Arabs still more; so that their higher medicines (which they call °° God's Hands ") have opium for their basis and principal ingredient, with a mixture of other things to counteract and correct the noxious qualities thereof; such are treacle, mithridate, and the like.

21. All remedies successfully used in pestilential aid ma-lignant diseases to check and curb the spirits, lest they become unruly and turbulent, may be advantageously transferred to the prolongation of life. For the condensation of the spirits, which is best secured by opiates, is beneficial in both cases.

22. The Turks find opium, even in large quantities, innocent and cordial, so that they even take it before a battle to give them courage. But to us, except in small quantities, and with strong correctives, it is fatal.

23. Opium and opiates are clearly found to excite the sexual passion, which shows their power to strengthen the spirits.

24. Distilled water of the wild poppy being doubtless a mild opiate, is successfully given in surfeit, fevers, and various diseases; and let no one wonder at the variety of its use. For this is common to opiates, as the spirits being strengthened and condensed will fight against any disease.

25. The Turks use likewise a kind of herb, called " coffee," which they dry, grind to powder, and drink in warm water. They affirm that it gives no small vigour both to their courage and their wit. Yet this taken in large quantities will excite and disturb the mind; which shows it to be of a similar nature to opiates.

26. There is a certain root, celebrated through all the Fast, called °° betel," which the Indians and others use to carry in their mouths, and chew ; whereby they are wonderfully re-freshed, and enabled to endure fatigues, and throw off dis-orders, and strengthened for sexual intercourse. It appears to be a kind of narcotic, because it blackens the teeth ex-ceedingly.

27. The use of tobacco has immensely increased in our time. It affects men with a kind of secret pleasure, so that persons once accustomed to it can scarce leave it otl: It tends no doubt to relieve the body, and remove weariness; and its virtue is commonly thought to lie in this, that it opens the passages and draws off the humours. But it may be more properly referred to the condensation of the spirits; for it is a kind of henbane, and manifestly affects the head, as all opiates do.

28. Humours are sometimes generated in the body, which are a kind of opiates themselves; as is found in some kinds of melancholy, wherewith if a man be seized, he is very long-lived.

29. Simple opiates, which are likewise called narcotics and stnpefactives, are opium itself, which is the juice of the poppy, the plant and seed of the poppy, henbane, mandragora, hem-lock, tobacco, and nightshade.

30. Compound opiAes are, treacle, mithridate, trifera, la-danum of Paracelsus, diacodium, diascordium, philonium, and pills of houndstongue.

31. From these observations certain directions or advices may be drawn for the prolongation of life, according to this intention, namely, the condensing of the spirits by opiate.

32. From youth upwards, therefore, let there be ec-ery year a kind of opiate diet. Let it be taken at the end of May; for in summer the spirit: are most wasted and weakened, and there is less fear of cold humours. Let the opiate be of a superior kind, not so strong as those in use, either